Course Structure Syllabus
Class : XI (Theory) (2022-23)
Chemistry
Unit I : Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 8 Periods
General Introduction: Importance and scope of chemistry. Nature of matter, laws of chemical combination, Dalton’s atomic theory: concept of elements, atoms and molecules. Atomic and molecular masses, mole concept and molar mass, percentage composition, empirical and molecular formula, chemical reactions, stoichiometry and calculations based on stoichiometry.
Unit II : Structure of Atom 10 Periods
Bohr’s model and its limitations, concept of shells and subshells, dual nature of matter and light, de Broglie’s relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, concept of orbitals, quantum numbers, shapes
of s, p and d orbitals, rules for filling electrons in orbitals - Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle and Hund’s rule, electronic configuration of atoms, stability of half-filled and completely filled
orbitals.
Unit III : Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 06 Periods
Modern periodic law and the present form of periodic table, periodic trends in properties of elements -atomic radii, ionic radii, inert gas radii, Ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valency. Nomenclature of elements with atomic number greater than 100
Unit IV : Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 14 Periods
Valence electrons, ionic bond, covalent bond, bond parameters, Lewis structure, polar character of covalent bond, covalent character of ionic bond, valence bond theory, resonance, geometry of covalent molecules, VSEPR theory, concept of hybridization, involving s, p and d orbitals and shapes of some simple molecules, molecular orbital theory of homonuclear diatomic molecules(qualitative idea only), hydrogen bond.
Unit V : States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 18 Period
Three states of matter, intermolecular interactions, types of bonding, melting and boiling points, role of gas laws in elucidating the concept of the molecule, Boyle’s law, Charles law, Gay Lussac’s law,
Avogadro’s law, ideal behaviour, empirical derivation of gas equation, Avogadro’s number, ideal gas equation. Deviation from ideal behaviour, liquefaction of gases, critical temperature, kinetic energy and molecular speeds (elementary idea) Liquid State: vapour pressure, viscosity and surface tension (qualitative idea only, no mathematical derivations)
Unit VI : Chemical Thermodynamics 16 Periods
Concepts of System and types of systems, surroundings, work, heat, energy, extensive and intensive properties, state functions. First law of thermodynamics -internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity and
specific heat, measurement of ΔU and ΔH, Hess’s law of constant heat summation, enthalpy of bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization, sublimation, phase transition, ionization, solution
and dilution. Second law of Thermodynamics (brief introduction). Introduction of entropy as a state function, Gibb’s energy change for spontaneous and non- spontaneous processes, criteria for equilibrium.
Third law of thermodynamics (brief introduction).
Unit VII : Equilibrium 14 Periods
Equilibrium in physical and chemical processes, dynamic nature of equilibrium, law of mass action, equilibrium constant,factors affecting equilibrium- Le Chatelier’s principle, ionic equilibrium- ionization of acids and bases, strong and weak electrolytes, degree of ionization, ionization of poly basic acids, acid strength, concept of pH, Henderson Equation, hydrolysis of salts (elementary idea), buffer solution,
solubility product, common ion effect (with illustrative examples).
Unit VIII: Redox Reactions 06 Periods
Concept of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, balancing redox reactions, in terms of loss and gain of electrons and change in oxidation number, applications of redox reactions.
Unit IX: Hydrogen 08 Periods
Position of hydrogen in periodic table, occurrence, isotopes, preparation, properties and uses of hydrogen, hydrides-ionic covalent and interstitial; physical and chemical properties of water, heavy water, hydrogen
peroxide -preparation, reactions and structure and use; hydrogen as a fuel.
Unit X : s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals) 10 Periods
Group 1 and Group 2 Elements General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, anomalous properties of the first element of each group, diagonal relationship, trends in the variation of properties
(such as ionization enthalpy, atomic and ionic radii), trends in chemical reactivity with oxygen, water, hydrogen and halogens, uses. Preparation and Properties of Some Important Compounds: Sodium Carbonate, Sodium Chloride, Sodium Hydroxide and Sodium Hydrogen carbonate,
Biological importance of Sodium and Potassium. Calcium Oxide and Calcium Carbonate and their industrial uses, biological importance of Magnesium and Calcium
Unit XI : p-Block Elements 18 Periods
General Introduction to p-Block Elements : Group 13 Elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous properties of first element of the group, Boron - physical and chemical properties, some important compounds, Borax, Boric acid, Boron Hydrides, Aluminium: Reactions with acids and
alkalies, uses. Group 14 Elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first elements. Carbon-catenation, allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties; uses of some important compounds: oxides. Important compounds of Silicon and a few uses: Silicon Tetrachloride, Silicones, Silicates and Zeolites, their uses.
Unit XII : Organic Chemistry -Some Basic Principles and Technique 14 Periods
General introduction, methods of purification, qualitative and quantitative analysis, classification and IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds. Electronic displacements in a covalent bond: inductive
effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper conjugation. Homolytic and heterolytic fission of a covalent bond: free radicals, carbocations, carbanions, electrophiles and nucleophiles, types of organic reactions.
Unit XIII: Hydrocarbons 12 Periods
Classification of Hydrocarbons Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes - Nomenclature, isomerism, conformation (ethane only), physical properties, chemical reactions including free radical
mechanism of halogenation, combustion and pyrolysis. Alkenes - Nomenclature, structure of double bond (ethene), geometrical isomerism, physical properties, methods of preparation, chemical
reactions: addition of hydrogen, halogen, water, hydrogen halides (Markownikov's addition and peroxide effect), ozonolysis, oxidation, mechanism of electrophilic addition. Alkynes - Nomenclature, structure of triple bond (ethyne), physical properties, methods of preparation, chemical reactions: acidic character
of alkynes, addition reaction of - hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides and water. Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature, benzene: resonance, aromaticity, chemical properties: mechanism of electrophilic substitution. Nitration, sulphonation, halogenation, Friedel Craft's alkylation and acylation, directive influence of functional group in monosubstituted benzene. Carcinogenicity and toxicity.
Unit XIV : Environmental Chemistry 06 Periods
Environmental pollution - air, water and soil pollution, chemical reactions in atmosphere, smog, major atmospheric pollutants, acid rain, ozone and its reactions, effects of depletion of ozone layer, greenhouse
effect and global warming- pollution due to industrial wastes, green chemistry as an alternative tool for reducing pollution, strategies for control of environmental pollution
PRACTICAL SYLLABUS Total Periods 60
Micro-chemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments. Wherever possible such techniques should be used :
A. Basic Laboratory Techniques
1. Cutting glass tube and glass rod
2. Bending a glass tube
3. Drawing out a glass jet
4. Boring a cork
B. Characterization and Purification of Chemical Substances
1. Determination of melting point of an organic compound.
2. Determination of boiling point of an organic compound
3. Crystallization of impure sample of any one of the following: Alum,
Copper Sulphate, Benzoic Acid.
C. Experiments based on pH
(a) Any one of the following experiments :
- Determination of pH of some solutions obtained from fruit juices,
solution of known and varied concentrations of acids, bases and salts
using pH paper or universal indicator.
- Comparing the pH of solutions of strong and weak acids of same
concentration.
- Study the pH change in the titration of a strong base using universal
indicator.
(b) Study the pH change by common-ion in case of weak acid and weak bases.
D. Chemical Equilibrium.
1. No chapter was weightage. Care to be taken to cover all the chapters.
2. Suitable internal variations may be made for generating various templates
keeping the overall weightage to different form of questions and typology
of questions same.
Choice(s):
There will be no overall choice in the question paper.
HOW TO LEARN - CHEMISTRY
Dear students it is going to be long journey for all of you to have bright career in Science stream. Now you all have become the part of the Secondary School environment where critical thinking has a very big and important role. There are certainly few points which you need to imbibe in order to achieve success in
Science stream especially in chemistry. Let us go through these points....
1. Examination is not an end of teaching learning process, instead it is milestone to be covered with patience. If the journey of the course is not enjoyable then naturally the examination result are not up to the mark. So the first point is to enjoy the journey of teaching learning process with teachers, classmates,
friends and parents.
2. If at any stage doubt come in your mind, your mere hesitation can pile a lot of big hurdles towards goal achievement. So never pile up the doubts.
3. Always try to solve the solved examples of the NCERT first and the examples taught in the class, this will broaden your vision for the topic taught and once you are comfortable in the topic taught, now you can attempt the in text and back exercises problems.
4. The challenging task is to attempt the NCERT-EXEMPLER with full passion and with discussion in the class with classmates and the teacher.
5. Sincerity, punctuality, planning and hard work are the key area where you have to attain 100% by self analysis of yourself. If these areas are not worked upon by you then the high achievement is going to be a difficult task.
6. Before examination first try to revise the learned topics instead of learning new chapters, this will remove your stress. If the time permits, new topics can be seen but time factor constrains should also be kept in mind.
7. During the examination period, the word limit of the question should be taken care of, it should not that if I write more for (1) mark question I will get 3 or 5 marks. The word limit and the marks assigned should be considered while attempting the question.
8. While attempting the question in examination as well as in note copy also the assigned question must be supported by relevant diagram, formulas and unit of the physical parameter asked.
9. The presentation part must be as good as a reflection of the Board Topper's copy (Available in Directorate site and CBSE site-TOPPER'S sheet sample copy).
10. Read theory part carefully & practice as many numerical as you can. Focus on topics like mole concept, Electronic configuration, Quantum No., Oxidation No., Periodic Properties. VSEPR theory, Hybridization, Dipole moment, Resonance, IUPAC names, Electron transfer concepts, types of reactions,
reaction intermediates.
11. Select MCQs options wisely. Do not rush into choosing a particular option if unable to find the answer, use the rule of elimination to reach the most appropriate answer. Usually ruling out 3 options works out faster.
12. For case based questions and reason assertion question thorough reading of theory and concepts is very important.
13. At last one point should be kept in mind that the result is mere reflection of 3 hrs test. If my process of learning is correct. If I work sincerely, honestly and diligently the success will definitely come to me but till then I will notleave the process of learning with from teacher's, friends and mentors.
Chemistry is the science of molecules and their transformations. It is the science not so much of the one
hundred elements but of the infinite variety of molecules that may be built from them.
Roald Hoffmann Science can be viewed as a continuing human effort to systematise knowledge for describing and understanding nature. You have learnt in your previous classes that we come
across diverse substances present in nature and changes in them in daily life. Curd formation from milk, formation of vinegar from sugarcane juice on keeping for prolonged time and rusting of iron are some of the examples of changes which we come across many times. For the sake of convenience,
science is sub-divided into various disciplines: chemistry, physics, biology, geology, etc. The branch of science that studies the preparation, properties, structure and reactions of material substances is called chemistry.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry, as we understand it today, is not a very old discipline. Chemistry was not studied for its own sake, rather it came up as a result of search for two interesting things:
i. Philosopher’s stone (Paras) which would convert all baser metals e.g., iron and copper into gold.
ii.‘Elexir of life’ which would grant immortality. People in ancient India, already had the knowledge of many scientific phenomenon much before the advent of modern science. They applied that knowledge in various walks of life. Chemistry developed mainly in the form of Alchemy
and Iatrochemistry during 1300-1600 CE. Modern chemistry took shape in the 18th century Europe, after a few centuries of alchemical traditions which were introduced in Europe by the Arabs.
Other cultures – especially the Chinese and the Indian – had their own alchemical traditions.
These included much knowledge of chemical processes and techniques. In ancient India, chemistry was called Rasayan Shastra, Rastantra, Ras Kriya or Rasvidya. It included metallurgy, medicine, manufacture of cosmetics, glass, dyes, etc.
Systematic excavations at Mohenjodaro in Sindh and Harappa in Punjab prove that the story of development of chemistry in India is very old. Archaeological findings show that baked bricks were used in construction work. It shows the mass production of pottery, which can be regarded as the earliest chemical process, in which materials were mixed, moulded and subjected to heat by using fire to achieve
desirable qualities. Remains of glazed pottery have been found in Mohenjodaro. Gypsum
cement has been used in the construction work.
It contains lime, sand and traces of CaCO3. Harappans made faience, a sort of glass which
was used in ornaments. They melted and forged a variety of objects from metals, such as lead,
silver, gold and copper. They improved the hardness of copper for making artefacts by
using tin and arsenic. A number of glass objects were found in Maski in South India (1000–900
BCE), and Hastinapur and Taxila in North India (1000–200 BCE). Glass and glazes were
coloured by addition of colouring agents like metal oxides. Copper metallurgy in India dates back to the beginning of chalcolithic cultures in the subcontinent. There are much archeological evidences to support the view that technologies or extraction of copper and iron were developed indigenously.
According to Rigveda, tanning of leather and dying of cotton were practised during 1000–400 BCE. The golden gloss of the black polished ware of northen India could not be replicated and is still a chemical mystery. These wares indicate the mastery with which kiln temperatures could be controlled. Kautilya’s
Arthashastra describes the production of salt from sea. A vast number of statements and material
described in the ancient Vedic literature can be shown to agree with modern scientific
findings.
Copper utensils, iron, gold, silver ornaments and terracotta discs and painted grey pottery have been found in many archaeological sites in north India. Sushruta Samhita explains the importance of Alkalies.
The Charaka Samhita mentions ancient indians who knew how to prepare sulphuric
acid, nitric acid and oxides of copper, tin and zinc; the sulphates of copper, zinc and iron and
the carbonates of lead and iron. Rasopanishada describes the preparation of gunpowder mixture. Tamil texts also describe the preparation of fireworks using sulphur, charcoal, saltpetre (i.e., potassium
nitrate), mercury, camphor, etc. Nagarjuna was a great Indian scientist. He was a reputed chemist, an alchemist and a metallurgist. His work Rasratnakar deals with the formulation of mercury compounds. He has also discussed methods for the extraction of metals, like gold, silver, tin and copper. A book,
Rsarnavam, appeared around 800 CE. It discusses the uses of various furnaces, ovens and crucibles for different purposes. It describes methods by which metals could be identified by flame colour. Chakrapani discovered mercury sulphide.
The credit for inventing soap also goes to him. He used mustard oil and some alkalies as ingredients for making soap. Indians began making soaps in the 18th century CE. Oil of Eranda and seeds of Mahua plant and calcium carbonate were used for making soap. The paintings found on the walls of Ajanta and Ellora, which look fresh even after ages, testify to a high level of science achieved in ancient India. Varähmihir’s Brihat Samhita is a sort of encyclopaedia, which was composed in the sixth century CE. It informs about the preparation of glutinous material to be applied on walls and roofs of houses and temples. It was prepared entirely from extracts of various plants, fruits, seeds and barks, which were concentrated by boiling, and then, treated with various resins. It will be interesting to test such materials scientifically and assess them for use.
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry plays a central role in science and is often intertwined with other branches of science.
Principles of chemistry are applicable in diverse areas, such as weather patterns, functioning of brain and operation of a computer, production in chemical industries, manufacturing fertilisers, alkalis, acids, salts,
dyes, polymers, drugs, soaps, detergents, metals, alloys, etc., including new material. Chemistry contributes in a big way to the national economy. It also plays an important role in meeting human needs for food, healthcare products and other material aimed at improving the quality of life. This is exemplified by the large-scale production of a variety of fertilisers, improved variety of pesticides and insecticides.
Chemistry provides methods for the isolation of lifesaving drugs from natural sources and
makes possible synthesis of such drugs. Some of these drugs are cisplatin and taxol, which are effective in cancer therapy. The drug AZT (Azidothymidine) is used for helping AIDS patients.
Chemistry contributes to a large extent in the development and growth of a nation. With a better understanding of chemical principles it has now become possible to design and synthesise new material having specific magnetic, electric and optical properties. This has lead to the production
of superconducting ceramics, conducting polymers, optical fibres, etc. Chemistry has helped in establishing industries which manufacture utility goods, like acids, alkalies, dyes, polymesr metals, etc. These industries contribute in a big way to the economy of a nation and generate employment. In recent years, chemistry has helped in dealing with some of the pressing aspects of environmental degradation with a fair degree of success. Safer alternatives to environmentally hazardous refrigerants, like
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere, have been successfully synthesised. However, many big environmental problems continue to be matters of grave concern to the chemists. One such problem is the management of the Green House gases, like methane, carbon dioxide, etc. Understanding of biochemical processes, use of enzymes for large-scale production of chemicals and
synthesis of new exotic material are some of the intellectual challenges for the future generation of chemists. A developing country,like India, needs talented and creative chemists for accepting such challenges. To be a good chemist and to accept such challanges, one needs to understand the
basic concepts of chemistry, which begin with the concept of matter. Let us start with the nature of matter.
1.2 NATURE OF MATTER
You are already familiar with the term matter
from your earlier classes. Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter. Everything around us, for example, book, pen, pencil, water, air, all living beings, etc., are composed of matter. You know that they have mass and they occupy space. Let us recall the characteristics of the states of matter, which you learnt in your previous classes.
1.2.1 States of Matter
You are aware that matter can exist in three physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas. The constituent particles of matter in these three states can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.1. Particles are held very close to each other in solids in an orderly fashion and there is not much freedom of movement. In liquids, the particles are close to each other but they can move around. However, in gases, the particles
are far apart as compared to those present in solid or liquid states and their movement is easy and fast. Because of such arrangement of particles, different states of matter exhibit the following characteristics:
(i) Solids have definite volume and definite shape.
(ii) Liquids have definite volume but do not have definite shape. They take the shape of the container in which they are placed.
1.2.2. Classification of Matter
In class IX (Chapter 2),
you have learnt that
at the macroscopic or bulk level, matter can be
classified as mixture or pure substance. These
can be further sub-divided as shown in Fig. 1.2.
When all constituent particles of a
substance are same in chemical nature, it is
said to be a pure substance. A mixture
contains many types of particles.
A mixture contains particles of two or more
pure substances which may be present in it in
any ratio. Hence, their composition is variable.
Pure sustances forming mixture are called its
components. Many of the substances present
around you are mixtures. For example, sugar
solution in water, air, tea, etc., are all mixtures.
A mixture may be homogeneous or
heterogeneous. In a homogeneous mixture,
the components completely mix with each other.
This means particles of components of the
mixture are uniformly distributed throughout the bulk of the mixture and its composition is
uniform throughout. Sugar solution and air
are the examples of homogeneous mixtures.
In contrast to this, in a heterogeneous
mixture, the composition is not uniform
throughout and sometimes different
components are visible. For example, mixtures
of salt and sugar, grains and pulses along with
some dirt (often stone pieces), are
heterogeneous mixtures.
You can think of
many more examples of mixtures which you
come across in the daily life. It is worthwhile to
mention here that the components of a
mixture can be separated by using physical
methods, such as simple
hand-picking, filtration, crystallisation,
distillation, etc.
Pure substances have characteristics
different from mixtures. Constituent particles
of pure substances have fixed composition.
Copper, silver, gold, water and glucose are
some examples of pure substances. Glucose
contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a
fixed ratio and its particles are of same
composition.
Hence, like all other pure
substances, glucose has a fixed composition.
Also, its constituents—carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen—cannot be separated by simple
physical methods.
Pure substances can further be
classified into elements and compounds.
Particles of an element consist of only one
type of atoms. These particles may exist as
atoms or molecules. You may be familiar
with atoms and molecules from the
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