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Monday, July 11, 2022

Best Ways to Conduct your Research

Start any research project by working with the broadest out- lines or topics (and the broadest resources) and slowly narrow your focus, getting more and more specific in topic and sources as you go along.

Encyclopedic entries are usually the most comprehensive and concise you will find. They cover so much territory and are so (relatively) up to date that they are an ideal “big picture” resource.

If you are writing a paper about a historical or contemporary figure, also consider skimming a biographical dictionary or, even better, one of the specific volumes in the Who’s Who series, which ranges from Who’s Who in Art and Who’s Who in American Jewry to Who’s Who in Vietnam and Who’s Who in Theatre.

Needless to say, new CD-ROMs and reference websites appear almost hourly. These many current resources should make it increasingly easy to choose a good topic, establish a reasonable thesis, and gather enough information to construct an initial outline, with- out having to do any further research.

Evaluating Resources

You may find so many potential resources that you won’t have time to read them all. Concentrate on those that have been published most recently or written by the most respected sources. However, don’t limit yourself too much—gather information from a wide range of sources. Otherwise, you may learn only one side of the story.

There are two types of resources: primary and secondary.

Primary resources are those written by people who actually witnessed or participated in an event. When you read a scientist’s report about an experiment he has conducted, you are consulting a primary resource.

Secondary resources are those written by people who were not actually present at an event, but have studied the subject. When you read a book about the 1950s written by someone who was born in 1960, you are learning from a secondary resource.

Primary resources are likely to be more reliable sources of information. But depending upon your subject, there may not be any primary resources available to you.

Where to Look for Materials

How do you find out whether anyone has written a magazine or newspaper article about your topic? How do you know if there are any government documents or pamphlets that might be of help? How do you locate those written-by-the-experts reference books?

You look in your library’s publication indexes, which list all of the articles, books, and other materials that have been published and/or are available in your library. Most are arranged alphabetically by subject:

1. The card catalog. This is a list of all the books in your library. (Although many libraries now store it on computer, it’s still often called a card catalog because it used to be kept on index cards.) Books are indexed in three different ways: by subject, by author, and by title.

2. Book catalogs. The best-known are Books in Print, Forthcoming Books, and the Cumulative Book Index.

3. Newspaper indexes. Several large-city newspapers provide an indexed list of all articles they have published. Your library may even have past issues of one or more available on microfiche.

4. Periodical indexes. To find out if any magazine articles have been published on your subject, go to a periodical index. The Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature, which indexes articles published in the most popular American magazines, may be one with which you’re already familiar.

5. Vertical file. Here’s where you’ll find pamphlets and brochures.

6. Guide to U.S. Government Publications, American Statistical Index, and Congressional Information Service Index. These are all useful for locating government publications.

7. Computer databases. Widely used indexes are available, covering American and world history, art, biology, philosophy, religion, psychology, engineering, and much more.

8. The Internet. Most magazines, newspapers, encyclopedias, government organizations, and so forth have websites that can be a starting point for your search. They often have links to other sites where you can find full-length articles and stories, biographic information, and the like.

How Libraries Are Organized

To provide organization and facilitate access, most small and academic libraries utilize the Dewey decimal classification system, which uses numbers from 000 through 999 to classify all material by subject matter. It begins by organizing all books into 10 major groupings.

Given the millions of books available in major libraries, just dividing them into these 10 groups would still make it quite difficult to find a specific title. So each of the 10 major groupings is further divided into 10, and each of these now 100 groups is assigned to more specific subjects within each large group. For example, within the philosophy classification (100), 150 is psychology and 170 is ethics. Within the history classification (900), 910 is travel and 930 is ancient history.

An Approach to Online Research

■ Long before a paper is due, choose four search engines—one a metasearch engine (which searches other search engines), the other three regular. Robin’s recommendations: Copernic (meta), Google, Hotbot, AltaVista, Northern Light, Dogpile (meta).

■ When beginning your research, use the meta engine first.

■ Learn each engine’s advanced features—you’ll find things faster and easier.

■ Print out the FAQ pages for each search engine and create your own manual.

■ Choose three search engines with different strengths to maximize your search abilities.

■ Consider using a specialized search engine, such as Beaucoup, if you are unable to find what you want or have found too much information.

■ Learn Boolean searches.

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Multiple Intelligences in children

Multiple intelligence theory suggests that rather than intelligence being an all-or-nothing entity, it is made up of distinct learning proficiencies that can work individually or together. There are generally eight agreed-upon classifications of intelligence strengths. All of us are presumed by this theory to have all eight intelligences in varying amounts. Your child’s learning may be most efficient and successful when he applies his strongest intelligence to the task. Here’s a quick overview of those eight intelligences:

Linguistic intelligence includes sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, and words. Proficiencies in this intelligence include organisational abilities, logical deduction, memory sensitivity to spoken and written language, mnemonics, and structured, sequential notes or instructions.

Logical-mathematical intelligence includes proficiencies in logic, patterning, conceptualisation, and abstraction.

Musical-rhythmic intelligence includes sensitivity to auditory tone, pitch, and rhythm. Proficiencies include auditory patterning and auditory memory.

Visual-spatial intelligence includes sensitivity to the relationships of objects, concepts, or images in different fields or dimensions. Proficiencies in this intelligence include mentally creating and visualising spatial relationships, as in mapping or diagramming, and starting with a big-picture conceptual overview before filling in details.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence includes sensitivity to physical, spatial, or sequential movement through time and space. Proficiencies include sense of time, proportion, prediction of sequence, and visualisation of movement.

Interpersonal intelligence includes perceptiveness and sensitivity to others’ moods and feelings. Proficiencies include the ability to interact with and lead people with understanding by interpreting their intensions, needs, emotions, and desires.

Intrapersonal intelligence includes understanding of and confidence in one’s own beliefs and goals. Proficiencies include an ability to reflect upon one’s own thoughts and feelings, introspection, analysis, and reflection.

Naturalist intelligence includes perceptiveness of things existing in the natural world, such as plants and animals. Proficiencies include organizing things into categories, detailed observation, and pattern recognition.

LEARNING STYLES

Learning-style preferences refer to the way children prefer to approach learning and how their brains most successfully process information. Where intelligences are seen in what children relate to in the things, information, and people around them, learning-style preferences are reflective of how they relate and which way of presenting information is most likely to stick with their neural-network patterning.

There are dozens of different names for learning-style preferences, though three main ones dominate, and for the purposes of this book, I will consolidate these into three general categories.

Auditory-sequential or analytical learners tend to process information in a parts-to-whole manner. These children respond to logic, order, and sequence. Auditory-sequential (AS) preference is evidenced

in children who respond best to spoken information. These are often children with linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence strengths who tend to learn best by evaluating patterns and connections in information they hear. AS learners often respond well when they study information methodically—making timelines, lists, and other sequences using facts about the information they need to study. They also respond to talking or reading aloud to themselves and being quizzed verbally when they study.

AS learners prefer dealing with one task at a time in organised working spaces. Because they tend to be analytical thinkers, they prefer solving existing problems rather than creating their own. They use logic and deduction. If your child is an AS learner, he might enjoy expanding on a concept or theme by reasoning out and predicting logical implications that follow from a rule or guiding principle. AS learners usually prefer learning activities that have one correct answer and can be broken down into logical, sequential steps.

Visual-spatial learners usually are high in visual-spatial (VSK) intelligence and process information best when a topic is introduced as an overview before the details are taught, in a whole-before-detail or global introduction. They think primarily in images and prefer visual explanations, videos, diagrams, computer simulations/graphics, and demonstrations. They enjoy success when learning is less structured and more creative and interactive.

Because children with visual-spatial learning-style preferences tend to see or visualise patterns and connections, they enjoy solving novel problems with more than one solution. They choose or create their own problems and evaluate them through reasoning and intuition.

VSK learners enjoy starting with a larger concept and then adding details to that concept through inductive reasoning. To do this, they often like to see the final product and then, without instruction, use their intuition to figure out how to get the final product or solution.

These children like discovering or creating relationships between themselves and what they are about to study.

Kinesthetic preference learners generally have the proficiencies found in children with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence and many of the proficiencies found in children with visual-spatial intelligence. They like to touch what they are learning and respond well to learning activities with movement, role playing, and hands-on exploration with math manipulatives and science experiments, and may need to move during breaks rather than just change to a different sedentary activity.

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Monday, June 27, 2022

How to Prepare for Any Class

In general, here’s how you should plan to prepare for any class before you walk through the door and take your seat. Complete All Assignments Regardless of a particular teacher’s style or the classroom format she is using, virtually every course you take will have a formal text (or two or three or more) assigned to it. Though the way the text explains or covers particular topics may differ substantially from your teacher’s approach to the same material, your text is still the basis of the course and a key ingredient in your studying.

You must read it, plus any other assigned books, before you get to class. You may sometimes feel you can get away without reading assigned books beforehand, especially in a lecture format where you know the chance of being called on is slim to none. But fear of being questioned on the material is certainly not the only reason I stress reading the material that’s been assigned. You will be lost if the professor decides—for the first time ever!—to spend the entire period asking the students questions. I’ve had it happen. And it is not a pleasant experience for the unprepared. You’ll also find it harder to take clear and concise notes in class when you don’t know what’s in the text— in which case you’ll be frantically taking notes on material you could have underlined in your books the night before.

You’ll also find it difficult to evaluate the relative importance of the teacher’s remarks. If you’re heading for a discussion group, how can you participate without your reading as a basis? I think the lousiest feeling in the world is sitting in a classroom knowing that, sooner or later, you are going to be called on and you don’t know the material. Remember: Completing your reading assignment includes not just reading the main text but any other books or articles assigned, plus handouts that may have been previously passed out. It also means completing any non reading assignments—turning in a lab report, preparing a list of topics, or being ready to present your oral report.

Needless to say, while doing your homework is important, turning it in is an essential second step! My daughter, Lindsay, refused to use any organisational system for a short time. As a result, in addition to a host of missed appointments and forgotten assignments, she would often forget to pack the homework she did do, or bring it to school but forget to turn it in.

One simple change I made in her routine has made a world of difference: She now has a bright red manila folder, marked “HOMEWORK,” into which she puts every completed assignment the instant it’s done. When she gets to class, she immediately pulls out her folder to see if she has something to turn in. (She’s also given up on her “non organizational” system, but that’s another story.)

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Wednesday, June 22, 2022

The Importance of Pre-Reading

The best way to begin any reading assignment is to skim the pages to get an overall view of what information is included. Then read the text more carefully and highlight it and/or take notes in your notebook.

A brief digression: Most everyone I know confuses “skim” and “scan.” Let me set the record straight. Skim is to read quickly and superficially. Scan is to read carefully but for a specific item. So when you skim a reading selection, you are reading it in its entirety, though you’re only hitting the “highlights.” When you scan a selection, you are reading it in detail but only until you find what you’re looking for. Scanning is the fastest reading rate of all—although you are reading in detail, you are not seeking to comprehend or remember anything that you see until you find the bit of information you’re looking for.

You probably are assigned a lot of reading that can be accomplished by skimming for facts. By establishing the questions you want answered before you begin to read, you can quickly browse through the material, extracting only the information you need.

Let’s say you’re reading a science book with the goal of identifying the function of a cell’s nucleus. You can breeze through the section that gives the parts of the cell. You can skim the description of what cells do. You already know what you’re looking for—and there it is in the section that talks about what each cell part does. Now you can start to read.

By identifying the questions you wanted to answer (a.k.a. your purpose) in advance, you would be able to skim the chapter and answer your questions in a lot less time than it would have taken to painstakingly read every word.

Skimming, or pre-reading, is a valuable step even if you aren’t seeking specific facts. When skimming for a general overview, there’s a very simple procedure to follow:

If there is a title or heading, rephrase it as a question. This will be your purpose for reading.
Examine all the subheadings, illustrations, and graphics, as these will help you identify the significant matter within the text.

3. Read thoroughly the introductory paragraphs, the summary, and any questions at the chapter’s end.

4. Read the first sentence of every paragraph, which generally contains the main point of the paragraph.

5. Evaluate what you have gained from this process: Can you answer the questions at the end of the chapter? Could you intelligently participate in a class discussion of the material?

6. Write a brief summary that encapsulates what you have learned from your skimming.

7. Based on this evaluation, decide whether a more thorough reading is required.

As a general rule, if you are reading textbook material word for word, you probably are wasting quite a bit of your study time. Good read- ers are able to discern what they should read in this manner and what they can afford to skim. When trying to simply gather detail and facts, skimming a text is a simple and very important shortcut that can save you a lot of reading time. Even if a more in-depth reading is neces- sary, you will find that by having gone through this process, you will have developed the kind of skeletal framework that will make your further reading faster, easier, and more meaningful. And if all you need is “Just the facts, ma’am,” your ability to scan a selection, chapter, or book will save you minutes, if not hours, every week.

Whether you’re skimming or scanning, you will have equipped your- self with the ability to better digest whatever the author is trying to communicate.

Seek Word Clues, Too

While the heads, subheads, first sentences, and other author-provided hints we’ve talked about will help you get a quick read on what a chapter is about, some of the words in that chapter will help you concentrate on the important points and ignore the unimportant. Knowing when to speed up, slow down, ignore, or really concentrate will help you read both faster and more effectively.

When you see words such as “likewise,” “in addition,” “moreover,” “furthermore,” and the like, you should know that nothing new is being introduced. If you already know what’s going on, speed up or skip what’s coming entirely.

On the other hand, when you see words like “on the other hand,” “nevertheless,”“however,”“rather,”“but,” and their ilk, slow down— you’re getting information that adds a new perspective or contradicts what you’ve just read.

Lastly, watch out for “payoff ” words such as “to summarize,” “in conclusion,” “therefore,” “consequently,” “thus”—especially if you only have time to “hit the high points” of a chapter or you’re reviewing for a test. Here’s where everything that went before is happily tied up in a nice bow and ribbon, a present that enables you to avoid having to unwrap the entire chapter.

The Challenge of Technical Texts

What about the unique challenges posed by highly technical texts— physics, trigonometry, chemistry, calculus— you know, subjects that three-fourths of all students avoid like the plague? These subjects demand a logical, organized approach and a step-by-step reading method. And they require a detection of the text’s organizational devices.

Developing the skill to identify the basic sequence of the text will enable you to follow the progression of thought, a progression that is vital to your comprehension and retention.