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Chapter 1 - Early societies

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IN this section, we will read about two themes relating to early societies. The first is about the beginnings of human existence, from the remote past, millions of years ago. You will learn how humans first emerged in Africa and how archaeologists have studied these early phases of history from remains of bones and stone tools. Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct the lives of early people – to find out about the shelters in which they lived, the food they ate by gathering plant produce and hunting animals, and the ways in which they expressed themselves.

Other important developments include the use of fire and of language. And, finally, you will see whether the lives of people who live by hunting and gathering today can help us to understand the past. The second theme deals with some of the earliest cities – those of Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. These cities developed around temples, and were centres of long-distance trade. Archaeological evidence – remains of old settlements – and an abundance of written material are used to reconstruct the lives of the different people who lived there – craftspeople, scribes, labourers, priests, kings and queens. You will notice how pastoral people played an important role in some of these towns.

A question to think about is whether the many activities that went on in cities would have been possible if writing had not developed. You may wonder as to how people who for millions of years had lived in forests, in caves or temporary shelters and rock shelters began to eventually live in villages and cities. Well, the story is a long one and is related to several developments that took place at least 5,000 years before the establishment of the first cities.

One of the most far-reaching changes was the gradual shift from nomadic life to settled agriculture, which began around 10,000 years ago. As you will see in Theme 1, prior to the adoption of agriculture, people had gathered plant produce as a source of food. Slowly, they learnt more about different kinds of plants – where they grew, the seasons when they bore fruit and so on.

From this, they learnt to grow plants. In West Asia, wheat and barley, peas and various kinds of pulses were grown. In East and Southeast Asia, the crops that grew easily were millet and rice. Millet was also grown in Africa. Around the same time, people learnt how to domesticate animals such as sheep, goat, cattle, pig and donkey. Plant fibres such as cotton and flax, and animal fibres such as wool were now woven into cloth. Somewhat later, about 5,000 years ago, domesticated animals such as cattle and donkeys were harnessed to ploughs and carts. These developments led to other changes as well. When people grew crops, they had to stay in the same place till the crops ripened. So, settled life became more common. And with that, people built more permanent structures in which to live. This was also the time when some communities learnt how to make earthen pots.

These were used to store grain and other produce, and to prepare and cook a variety of foods made from the new grains that were cultivated. In fact, a great deal of attention was given to processing foods to make them tasty and digestible. The way stone tools were made also changed. While earlier methods of making tools continued, some tools and equipment were now smoothened and polished by an elaborate process of grinding. New equipment included mortars and pestles for processing and grinding grain, as well as stone axes and hoes, which were used to clear land for cultivation, as well as for digging the earth to sow seeds.

In some areas, people learnt to tap the ores of metals such as copper and tin. Sometimes, copper ores were collected and used for their distinctive bluish-green colour. This prepared the way for the more extensive use of metal for jewellery and for tools subsequently. There was also a growing familiarity with other kinds of produce from distant lands (and seas). This included wood, stones, including precious and semi-precious stones, metals and shell, and obsidian (hardened) volcanic lava. Clearly, people were going from place to place, carrying goods and ideas with them.

With increasing trade, the growth of villages and towns, and the movements of people, in place of the small communities of early people there now grew small states. While these changes took place slowly, over several thousand years, the pace quickened with the growth of the first cities. Also, the changes had far-reaching consequences. Some scholars have described this as a revolution, as the lives of people were probably transformed beyond recognition.

Look out for continuities and changes as you explore these two contrasting themes in early history. Remember too, that we have selected only some examples of early societies for detailed study. There were other kinds of early societies, including farming communities and pastoral peoples. And there were other peoples who were hunter-gatherers as well as city dwellers, apart from the examples selected

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 11 Paths to Modernization

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 10 Displacing Indigenous Peoples

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 9 The Industrial Revolution

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 8 Confrontation of Cultures

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 7 Changing Cultural Traditions

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 6 The Three Orders

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 5 Nomadic Empires

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 2 Writing and City Life

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 1 From the Beginning of Time

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 11 - आधुनिकीकरण के रास्ते

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 10 - मूल निवासियों का विस्थापन

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 9 - औद्योगिक क्रांति

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 8 - संस्कृतियों का टकराव

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 7 - बदलती हुई सांस्कृतिक परंपराएँ

Chapter 2 - Empires

OVER the two millennia that followed the establishment of empires in Mesopotamia, various attempts at empire building took place across the region and in the area to the west and east of it. By the sixth century BCE, Iranians had established control over major parts of the Assyrian empire. Networks of trade developed overland, as well as along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. In the eastern Mediterranean, Greek cities and their colonies benefited from improvements in trade that were the result of these changes. They also benefited from close trade with nomadic people to the north of the Black Sea.

In Greece, for the most part, city-states such as Athens and Sparta were the focus of civic life. From among the Greek states, in the late fourth century BCE, the ruler of the kingdom of Macedon, Alexander, undertook a series of military campaigns and conquered parts of North Africa, West Asia and Iran, reaching up to the Beas. Here, his soldiers refused to proceed further east. Alexander’s troops retreated, though many Greeks stayed behind. Throughout the area under Alexander’s control, ideals and cultural traditions were shared amongst the Greeks and the local population. The region on the whole became ‘Hellenised’ (the Greeks were called Hellenes), and Greek became a well-known language throughout.

The political unity of Alexander’s empire disintegrated quickly after his death, but for almost three centuries after, Hellenistic culture remained important in the area. The period is often referred to as the ‘Hellenistic period’ in the history of the region, but this ignores the way in which other cultures (especially Iranian culture associated with the old empire of Iran) were as important as – if not often more important than – Hellenistic notions and ideas. This section deals with important aspects of what happened after this. Small but well-organised military forces of the central Italian city state of Rome took advantage of the political discord that followed the disintegration of Alexander’s empire and established control over North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean from the second century BCE.

At the time, Rome was a republic. Government was based on a complex system of election, but its political institutions gave some importance to birth and wealth and society benefited from slavery. The forces of Rome established a network for trade between the states that had once been part of Alexander’s empire. In the middle of the first century BCE, under Julius Caesar, a high-born military commander, this ‘Roman Empire’ was extended to present-day Britain and Germany. Latin (spoken in Rome) was the main language of the empire, though many in the east continued to use Greek, and the Romans had a great respect for Hellenic culture. There were changes in the political structure of the empire from the late first century BCE, and it was substantially Christianised after the emperor Constantine became a Christian in the fourth century CE.

To make government easier, the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western halves in the fourth century CE. But in the west, there was a breakdown of the arrangements that existed between Rome and the tribes in frontier areas (Goths, Visigoths, Vandals and others). These arrangements dealt with trade, military recruitment and settlement, and the tribes increasingly attacked the Roman administration. Conflicts increased in scale, and coincided with internal dissensions in the empire, leading to the collapse of the empire in the west by the fifth century CE. Tribes established their own kingdoms within the former empire, though, with the prompting of the Christian Church, a Holy Roman Empire was formed from some of these kingdoms from the ninth century CE. This claimed some continuity with the Roman Empire.

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 6 - तीन वर्ग

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 5 - यायावर साम्राज्य

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 4 - इस्लाम का उदय और विस्तार

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 3 - तीन महाद्वीपों में फैला हुआ साम्राज्य

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 2 - लेखन कला और शहरी जीवन

कक्षा 11 इतिहास महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न अध्याय 1 - समय की सुरुआत से

Class 11 History Chapter 11 आधुनिकीकरण के रास्ते MCQ with Answers in Hindi Medium

Class 11 History Chapter 10 मूल निवासियों का विस्थापन MCQ with Answers in Hindi Medium

Class 11 History Chapter 9 औद्योगिक क्रांति MCQ with Answers in Hindi Medium

Class 11 History Chapter 8 संस्कृतियों का टकराव MCQ with Answers in Hindi Medium

Class 11 History Chapter 7 बदलती हुई सांस्कृतिक परंपराएँ MCQ with Answers in Hindi Medium

Class 11 History Chapter 6 तीन वर्ग (MCQ) with answers in Hindi medium

Class 11 History Chapter 5 यायावर साम्राज्य MCQ Questions (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Chapter 4 इस्लाम का उदय और विस्तार MCQ Questions ( Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Chapter 3 तीन महाद्वीपों में फैला हुआ साम्राज्य MCQ Questions ( Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Chapter 2 लेखन कला और शहरी जीवन MCQ Questions ( Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Chapter 1 समय की सुरुआत से MCQ Questions ( Hindi Medium)

An Empire Across Three Continents

THE Roman Empire covered a vast stretch of territory that included most of Europe as we know it today and a large part of the Fertile Crescent and North Africa. In this chapter we shall look at the way this empire was organised, the political forces that shaped its destiny, and the social groups into which people were divided. You will see that the empire embraced a wealth of local cultures and languages; that women had a stronger legal position then than they do in many countries today; but also that much of the economy was run on slave labour, denying freedom to substantial numbers of persons. From the fifth century on, the empire fell apart in the west but remained intact and exceptionally prosperous in its eastern half.

The caliphate which you will read about in the next chapter built on this prosperity and inherited its urban and religious traditions. Roman historians have a rich collection of sources to go on, which we can broadly divide into three groups: (a) texts, (b) documents and (c) material remains. Textual sources include histories of the period written by contemporaries (these were usually called ‘Annals’, because the narrative was constructed on a year-by-year basis), letters, speeches, sermons, laws, and so on. Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cut on stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin. The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material that was very widely used in everyday life.

Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists’. Material remains include a very wide assortment of items that mainly archaeologists discover (for example, through excavation and field survey), for example, buildings, monuments and other kinds of structures, pottery, coins, mosaics, even entire landscapes (for example, through the use of aerial photography). Each of these sources can only tell us just so much about the past, and combining them can be a fruitful exercise, but how well this is done depends on the historian’s skill! Two powerful empires ruled over most of Europe,North Africa and the Middle East in the period between the birth of Christ and the early part of the seventh century, say, down to the 630s. The two empires were those of Rome and Iran. The Romans and Iranians were rivals and fought against each other for much of their history. Their empires lay next to each other, separated only by a narrow strip of land that ran along the river Euphrates. In this chapter we shall be looking at the Roman Empire, but we shall also refer, in passing, to Rome’s rival, Iran

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 11 - लेखन कला और शहरी जीवन (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 10 - लेखन कला और शहरी जीवन (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 9 - औद्योगिक क्रांति (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 8 - संस्कृतियों का टकराव (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 7 - बदलती हुई सांस्कृतिक परंपराएँ (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 6 - तीन वर्ग (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 5 - यायावर साम्राज्य (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 4 - इस्लाम का उदय और विस्तार (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 3 - तीन महाद्वीपों में फैला हुआ साम्राज्य (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 2 - लेखन कला और शहरी जीवन (Hindi Medium)

Class 11 History Notes अध्याय 1 - समय की सुरुआत से (Hindi Medium)

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 11 Paths to Modernization

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 10 Displacing Indigenous Peoples

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 9 The Industrial Revolution

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 8 Confrontation of Cultures

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 7 Changing Cultural

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 6 The Three Orders

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 5 Nomadic Empires

CONFRONTATION OF CULTURES

THIS chapter will examine some aspects of the encounters between Europeans and the people of the Americas between the fifteenth and the seventeenth centuries. Some Europeans ventured out on unknown oceans in order to find trading routes to areas where spices and silver were to be obtained. The first to do this were the Spanish and the Portuguese. They persuaded the Pope to give them the exclusive right to rule over any new regions they might locate.

Christopher Columbus, an Italian, sponsored by the rulers of Spain, sailed west in 1492, and thought that the lands he had reached were ‘the Indies’ (India and countries east of India about which he had read in the Travels of Marco Polo). Later exploration indicated that the ‘Indians’ of the ‘New World’ actually belonged to different cultural groups and were not part of Asia. Two types of culture were to be found in the Americas. There were small subsistence economies in the Caribbean region and in Brazil. There were also powerful monarchical systems based on well-developed agriculture and mining. These, like the Aztecs and Mayas of central America and the Incas of Peru, also had monumental architecture.

The exploration and later the settlement of South America were to have disastrous consequences for the native people and their cultures. It also marked the beginning of the slave trade, with Europeans selling slaves from Africa to work in plantations and mines in the Americas. European conquest of the people of America was accompanied by the ruthless destruction of their manuscripts and monuments. It was only in the late nineteenth century that anthropologists began to study these cultures. Still later, archaeologists found the ruins of these civilisations. The Inca city of Machu Picchu was rediscovered in 1911. Recently, photographs taken from the air have shown traces of many cities now covered by forest. By contrast, we know the European side of the encounters in great detail.

The Europeans who went to the Americas kept log-books and diaries of their journeys. There are records left by officials and Jesuit missionaries (see Theme 7). Europeans wrote about their ‘discovery’ of the Americas, and when histories of the countries of America were written, these were in terms of European settlements, with little reference to the local people. THEME 8 2019-2

People have been living in North and South America and nearby islands for thousands of years, and many migrations from Asia and from the South Sea Islands have taken place over time. South America was (and still is, in parts) densely forested and mountainous, and the Amazon, the world’s largest river, flows through miles of dense forest. In Mexico, in central America, there were densely settled areas of habitation along the coast and in the plains, while elsewhere villages were scattered over forested areas.

Communities of the Caribbean and Brazil

The Arawakian Lucayos lived on a cluster of hundreds of small islands in the Caribbean Sea, today known as the Bahamas, and the Greater Antilles. They had been expelled from the Lesser Antilles by the Caribs, a fierce tribe. In contrast to them, the Arawaks were a people who preferred negotiation to conflict. Skilled boat-builders, they sailed the open sea in dugout canoes (canoes made from hollow tree trunks). They lived by hunting, fishing and agriculture, growing corn, sweet potatoes, tubers and cassava. A central cultural value was the organisation of people to produce food collectively and to feed everyone in the community. They were organised under clan elders. Polygamy was common. The Arawaks were animists. As in many other societies, shamans played an important role as healers and intermediaries between this world and that of the supernatural.

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 2 Writing and City Life

Source Based Questions History Class 11 Chapter 1 From the Beginning of Time

MCQ Questions for Class 11 History Chapter 11 Paths to Modernization

MCQ Questions for Class 11 History Chapter 10 Displacing Indigenous Peoples

MCQ Questions for Class 11 History Chapter 9 The Industrial Revolution

MCQ Questions for Class 11 History Chapter 8 Confrontation of Cultures

MCQ Questions for Class 11 History Chapter 7 Changing Cultural

MCQ Questions for Class 11 History Chapter 6 The Three Orders

MCQ Questions for Class 11 History Chapter 5 Nomadic Empires

MCQ Questions for Class 11 History Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands

MCQ Questions for Class 11 History Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents